China's
culture is one of the oldest of the world. Legend has it that the three
nobles and five emperors (sanhuang wudi 
)were
the first rules of China. They're also considered as the ancestors of
the Chinese people. Of these legendary figures, some taught the Chinese
to build houses, others how to grow grain. All of them were idealized
figures during a time when mankind was first learning how to survive in
the world. The most famous two of these eight semi-deities were the emperors
Yan and Huang. Today the Chinese often refer to themselves as Yan Huang
Zisun(yan huang zisun 
)-descendants
of the Yan and Huang emperors.
Despite a lack of written records in prehistoric China, through rich archaeological finds, it's possible to build a picture what life was like during this period. Fossils of an ancient humanoid dating back 1.7million years were found in Yunnan Province. The Yuanmou fossils are earliest trace of homo sapiens in China. Research has shown that during the prehistoric era there were many patches of human inhabitation throughout China. Unearthed jade and pottery show the civilization of that time was technologically advanced.
XIA (22nd-17th CENTURY BC)
The Xia is the first dynasty recorded in China's history. The dynasty was established by Qi, son of Yu the great, the legendary hero who tamed the Yellow River and controlled its perennial floods. The Erlitou ruins, discovered in Henan Province, illustrate the advanced technology of Xia culture, particularly the relics of an ancient palace and point to the rule of one strong figure.
SHANG (17TH-11TH CENTURY BC)
According to historical records, the Xia reigned for 471 years and was superseded
by the Shang dynasty. The Shang powerbase was in what are now Henan, Hebei
and Shandong provinces. Relics of the Shang dynasty, Yun ruins, were discovered
by archaeologists at Xiaotun Village in Henan Province. At the site they unearthed
numerous tortoise shells and animal bones inscribed with jiaguwen (jiaguwen
), the precursor to modern Chinese characters. These bones, also called oracle
bones, were used in divination ceremonies. Basic questions such as choosing
auspicious days for important events, what course of action to take and when
to begin harvesting, have been found. These bones have given much information
about the daily lives of the Shang people.
A significant amount of bronze ware was also excavated, of
which the best know is the rectangular simuwu ding (simuwu dafangding 
). Named
after the characters carved on it, this ding is 133cm high and weighs 875kg.
The simuwu is an impressive piece –the technological skill required to cast
such pieces was considerable. Much of the Shang bronze ware is inscribed with
characters and decorations. The decorations are usually based on animalistic
motifs; one that's particularly common is the taotie (taotie 
), a mythical
feral animal.
ZHOU
(11TH CENTURY-256BC)
King Zhou (zhouwang 
), the last king of Shang dynasty was
a despotic tyrant and was overthrown by the Zhou (no relation), a tribe
from the west. The Zhou dynasty would become longest ruling dynasty in Chinese
history, lasting over 770 years. Initially the Zhou dynasty made its capital
in Xi'an, Shananxi Province, but the capital was later moved east to Luoyang
in Henan Province. Historians divide the Zhou dynasty into Western Zhou
and Eastern Zhou because of this shift.
The king of the Western Zhou distributed his lands as fiefs to the nobles of his clan. These nobles then established vassal states around the Zhou capital, protecting the ruling authority in the center. The Zhou rules created an elaborate system of ceremonial rites with every rite matched to music and dance. The Zhou, as a method of control over their subjects, used these rites by explaining the nature of the Zhou's supremacy and legitimacy to rule. By performing the rituals, the Zhou believed they maintained the "Mandate of Heaven." As long as the ruling elite continued to have this mandate, their authority to rule remained divinely ordained.
During the rule of King Ping, the capital was moved to Luoyang to escape the threat of the Quanrong, a tribe from the west. This marked the beginning of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. The Eastern Zhou is further subdivided into two periods, the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period.
The power of the Zhou kings was slowly whittled away as powerful
nobles began to contend for power and only paid nominal homage the king. Eventually
the authority of the Zhou kings only extended to their territories immediately
surrounding Louyang. The most influential Zhou dukes became so powerful they
were called "The Five Overlords of the Spring and Autumn Period."
Under a state of constant warfare and expansion, the social system of the eastern Zhou changed radically. New technologies made their impact felt – the development of iron tools over stone tools coupled with the harnessing of animal power significantly increased agriculture, trade also grew and the first merchants and trades appeared.
The social classes also became more clearly defined into
four groups-the scholar (shi 
),
peasant farmer (nong 
),
manual laborer (gong 
)
and merchant (shang 
).
The social system outgrew the simplistic structure that the western Zhou
rites had established. What was desperately needed was a written code.
Enter
Confucius, China's most influential teacher and philosopher who lived from
551 to 479 BC, during one of the China's most turbulent periods. This was
a transitional time, a period between dynasties when local warlords fought
for supremacy-a reoccurring theme in Chinese history. Confucius's theories
and teachings would eventually be known simply as Confucianism (ru jia
).
His core belief stresses the idea of ren (ren 
),
which is a proximately translated as benevolence, something he felt that
society sorely lacked. Confucius traveled extensively, hoping to influence
local leaders. On his travels he picked up a large following of students
who continued his teaching after his death, thus laying the foundation for
the Confucian school of thought, which continues to influence Asia to this
day.
Once the Zhou dynasty became nothing but a name, the battle for supremacy intensified. The most powerful to these competing kingdoms are known as the "Seven Overlords." Each competing kingdom sought any advantage they could find over their rivals-this was a dynamic time replete with reforms and stratagems. It was the Qin kingdom that most successfully reformed and adapted itself politically, economically and technologically to the changing times.
Under the Zhou, the ruling elite held a monopoly on power
and were able to define what was culture. With the upheavals of Warring
States period, a new scholarly class (shi ren 
)
emerged at the cultural forefront. These scholars formed differing schools
of thought, each offering their services as advisors in hopes of gaining
influence. Out of this developed the "Hundred
Schools of thought," which promoted the development of systematic learning.
QIN (221-206BC)
In 221 BC, King Ying Zheng (ying zheng 
) established the
first unified empire in Chinese history, and named himself Shi Huangdi which
means the First Emperor. He unified the Chinese script, currency and measurement
system. His policies were focused on the exploration and stabilization of
the Chinese frontier. One of his projects to protect his domains included
the renowned Great Wall, which was built on the foundations of older walls.
History remembers Qin Shihuang as a tyrant. Severe laws and penalties were
enacted as a social control while supreme power lay with the emperor.
Another of the emperor's grandiose projects included the
Terracotta Army. Excavated in Shaanxi Province, this is part of the emperor's
massive mausoleum. Tens of thousands of conscripts were sent to construct
his tomb. The dynasty's tyrannical reign lasted a mere 16 years. After the
emperor's death widespread rebellions broke out. Eventually a rebel army led
by Liu Bang, a former local official, established the Han dynasty.
HAN (206BC-AD220)
Like the Zhou dynasty, the Han dynasty is divided into two
phrases, the Western Han settled its capital at Xi'an, while the Eastern Han
returned it to Luoyang in AD 25. The emperor and his chancellors, having witnessed
the sudden collapse of the Qin dynasty, realized that it wasn't feasible to
rule a vast kingdom solely on a strict legal system. The monarch relaxed the "legalist
system" and allowed the economy, destroyed by war, to recover. Emperor
Wudi, one of the early Han emperors, was both ambitious and talented-his reign
saw many achievements. By his reign, the Han dynasty was a thriving and powerful
empire. One of his most enduring legacies was promoting Confucianism as the
official ideology and applying it to the bureaucracy. Ministers were selected
based on their knowledge of the Confucian classics, a system that was continued
by succeeding dynasties up until the end of the Qing dynasty. He was also
able to centralize power, thus removing the threat of powerful nobles rising
in rebellion. On the economic side, new trade routes were established between
China and Central Asia. Chinese silk exported along these routes, which would
become know as the Silk Road (sichou zhilu 
).
Under the Eastern Han dynasty, power was further centralized,
the economy continued to prosper and cultural achievements reached a peak
–this era is considered one of China's golden ages. Paper was also invented
during this time. Although samples of paper have been found dating back
to the Western Han, it was during the Eastern Han when improved papermaking
techniques made it practical to manufacture.With the discovery of paper, the
dissemination of information and spread of learning increasing China's cultural
influence.
DISUNION (220-589)
From the 2nd to the 6th century, China went through a period
of disunity. The disintegration began with the displacement of the Eastern
Han by three regimes, the Wei, Shu and Wu. One of China's most famous literary
epics, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms (sanguo yanyi 
), which was written
by Luo Guangzhong during the Ming dynasty, is a fictionalized account of
this period.
Numerous petty kingdoms rose and fell during this time. Groups
of northern "barbarians"made inroads into China during this time,
establishing a series of kingdoms in the vulnerable north. Eventually the
Turgut (tuoba 
) tribe of the Xianbei unified northern China and established
the Northern Wei dynasty.
Xiao Wendi, an emperor of the northern Wei dynasty, carried out a series of reforms, basing his kingdom along the Chinese bureaucracy. The Confucian bureaucracy would prove to be one of China's most durable institutions-by adopting it, would be rules could gain legitimacy and claim the "Mandate of Heaven," weather they were ethnic Chinese or not. This extended period of northern incursion into Chinese lands saw the intermingling of different ethnic groups and exchange of knowledge.
It was during Han dynasty when Buddhism first came to China
from India. Temples and stupas, the architecture that people associate with
Chinese Buddhism begun to sprout throughout the land. As a sign of devotion,
Buddist cave carvings were begun in northern China. The ones at Yungang and
Longmen continue to awe and inspire visitors.
There were mass migrations during this period of upheaval. Some were by those seeking a better future, while others were forced from their homes. Vast numbers of Han Chinese journeyed south, expanding the cultural boundaries of China. They brought new technologies and Han culture as they moved into the periphery and assimilated or displaced local population.
SUI (581-618)
The Sui dynasty unified China in AD581 after more than 400
years of disunity, yet it only lasted 38 years. Much was accomplished during
this dynasty's short reign-a population census, reformation of the bloated
regional administration of the bloated regional administration system and
consolidation the southern regions. One of the Sui's most important legacies
was building the Grand Canal (da yunhe 
), which linked Huangzhou in the south
to Beijing in the north. The network of canals aided and enhanced economic
and cultural exchange between the south and north and would greatly influence
China's development. The downfall of the Sui dynasty came with several military
excursions into Korea. These disastrous wars were prohibitively expensive
and brought the dynasty to bankruptcy. Peasant rebellions erupted throughout
the countryside and Li Yuan, a Sui government minister ended the Sui dynasty
when he founded the Tang dynasty.
TANG (618-907)
The Tang dynasty was one of China's most prosperous and culturally rich periods.
Under the rule of the second Tang emperor, Taizong, the economy flourished and empire experienced an era of stability. Moreover, he was considered an enlightened ruler for his open style of governing.
Not long after Emperor Taixong, Wu Zetian became the only female empress in China's history. She remembered as a harsh but capable ruler who attracted people of talent to her court.
The Tang dynasty reached its peak under the stewardship of
Emperor Xuanzong .His rule heralded a long period of expansion, prosperity
and stability, but towards his later years, the dynasty declined and before
long regional military commanders seized the opportunity to rebel. The greatest
peril the dynasty faced was the devastating rebellion of An Lushan, an ethnic
Sogdian, who was the adopted son of Xuanzong's favorite concubine, Yang Guifei.
Many of the emperor's closest advisors blamed Yang Guifei,
who was nicknamed "the Fat Concubine," for the decline of the empire.
The emperor was so enamored by her charms that ignored state affairs and
spend his time with frolicking with his favorite instead. Coming from a poor
family, Yang Guifei took this opportunity to enrich herself and her family.
Eventually the emperor's officials forced the emperor to order her to commit
suicide while fleeing from An Lushan. After this episode, Xuangzong fell into
a deep depression and abdicated the throne. Tang poet Song of Everlasting
Sorrow(chang hen ge 
).
The imperial examination system became highly developed under the Tang. While in theory anyone, even a poor peasant, could take part in the examinations, in practice only those rich enough to afford the years of study could advance through the highly competitive system. Poetry also achieved remarkable heights of artistry during the Tang dynasty. Many China's most talented poets, such as Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi hail from this era.
The Tang dynasty was the largest power in Asia, extending
towards Central Asia with its cultural reach playing a key role in the development
of Korea and Japan. Numerous envoys and students from foreign countries frequent
visited Tang dynasty allowed for frequent cultural exchanges, making the Tang
dynasty the most cosmopolitan and open of all China's dynasties.
The Tang legal code and Chinese characters were some of China's
most important exports to Korea and Japan. Thousands of students from both
countries went arrived in China to study and Chinese teachers traveled
abroad to spread their wisdom. Buddhism continued to spread throughout China
where it became Sinicized, furthering its popularity. An eclectic milieu of
religions-Zoroastrianism, Nestorian Christianity, Manichaeism, Judaism and
Islam were brought into China. Technology also traveled along the Silk Road.
Arab trades spread papermaking techniques. Wood block printing was invented
during the Tang dynasty, with the Diamond Sutra (jingang jing 
), printed in
868, being the earliest example of a book made using this technique. In late
Tang battles, weapons employing gunpowder were used.
As the Tang dynasty reeled from An Lushan's rebellion, which last for over eight years, increased power was given to military officials to deal with the rebels, but in turn they began to acquire power and cave out kingdoms of their own. In AD 907, the Tang dynasty was overthrow. The dynasty once again began anew. The period following the collapse of the Tang was a time of devastation and turbulence. It was during this period of upheaval that China's economic center shifted from the Chinese heartland of the Yellow River valley in the north to the south. The economic migration south, coupled with frequent invasion from the north would create a cultural and psychological divide in the Chinese psyche based along the Yangtze River.
SONG (960-1279)
In 960, Zhao Kuangyin, a former military official, donned the "Dragon Robe," the symbol of imperial power and established the Northern Song dynasty. The second Northern Song emperor completed the reunification of the country when he destroyed the remaining opposition. The Song emperors, fully aware that the concentration of power among regional governors led to the downfall of the Tang dynasty, deliberately cured the powers of the local officials.
While officials had their powers curb, their numbers increased and they soon became a severe financial burden on the state coffers. This led to a financial crisis that affected the ability of the dynasty to defend itself militarily. To solve this problem, the scholar bureaucrats of the Song dynasty launched a series of political reforms. The policies that were proposed by Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi are the best known, they were wide ranging and, for the era, considered very liberal.
One characteristics of the Northern Song dynasty was its
emphasis on academia and its disdain for the military. The Northern Song developed
a complicated administration prospered. Due to the inconvenience of coins
for such trade, the first Chinese paper currency, called jiaozi (jiaozi 
),
was developed. Porcelain became a very important export and commerce flourished.
The detailed painting The Riverside Scene in Pure Brightness (qingming shanhe
tu 
) gives an accurate portrait of bustling city life during this era.
The Jurchen tribe from northern China eventually defeated
the Northern Song and established the Jin dynasty. The Song court fled
to Hangzhou where they established the Southern Song dynasty, which only controlled
south China. The regime was run by a powerful coterie of chancellors that
was befit with political infighting. This weakened the dynasty until it
was finally overtaken by powerful Mongols from the north.
Throughout the 300-year reign of the Song, northern minorities had been a constant threat to its borders. The court was continuously at war or negotiating treaties with these northern groups to secure the Song frontier.
The Song dynasty saw its share of technological breakthroughs.
A printer named Bi Sheng invented a method for movable type printing, which
made printing far more convenient and accessible. A crude compass, which was
first used during the Warring States period, saw continuous development and
by the Northern Song would become the predecessor to the modern compass.
YUAN (1206-1368)
At the beginning of 13th century, Genghis Khan(Chengjisi
han 
), Tie muzhen (Tiemuzhen 
)
in Chinese, united the feuding Mongolian tribes and created the world's most
formidable war machine. Sweeping across Eastern Europe and Asia, he created
the largest empire the world has even seen. Kublai Khan (hubilie 
), Genghis'
grandson, established the Yuan dynasty after sweeping away the Jin dynasty
in the China's north and remnants of the Song to the south. Adopting the Chinese
bureaucracy, Kublai Khan officially established the Yuan dynasty in 1271.
The Mongolians treated the Han Chinese harshly and rebellions broke out when
the dynasty saw the first signs of weakening.
The rule of Yuan dynasty, though harsh, did see significant cultural exchanges due to the large size of their territory. The Yuan rulers were known to readily accept new ideas and foreign experts if they could benefit their empire, regardless of whether those experts wanted to volunteer their services or not. Extensive trade routs were established, it was during the Yuan dynasty when Marco Polo supposedly visited China.
Ming (1368-1644)
Zhu Yuanzhang, originally a poor peasant, founded the Ming
dynasty after the fall of the turbulent Yuan dynasty. He established a standardized
bureaucracy with a strong central authority. His rule was autocratic, heavily
censoring his scholars and limiting cultural freedom. Culture enjoyed a liberal
revival when the Yongle emperor ascended the Dragon Throne. The Yongle Canon(yongle
dadian 
), a massive encyclopedia, was compiled during his reign. To reinforce
the frontier defenses in the north, he moved his capital from Nanjing to Beijing,
which was also his powerbase. His reign saw the Ming's greatest expansion-Zheng
He's voyages to Southeast Asia, India and Africa were made during this time.
Trade thrived under the Ming, overseas trade expanded and
merchants began to form local trade groups-Anhui merchants in the south and
Shanxi merchants in the north. During the later Ming, methods of production
akin to those of an early capitalist society emerged, particularly in the
production of handicrafts and as new maritime trade routs were established,
European nations increasingly sought trade opportunities in China.
During the late Ming, Western missionaries introduced Christianity and advanced sciences into China. Matteo Ricci, an early Italian Jesuit missionary became highly influential in the Ming court and became a close friend to the emperor.
The closing years of the Ming saw the rise of peasant revolts. The largest of these revolts was led by Li Zicheng. Though he managed to overthrow the Ming, he failed to unify China. Manchu forces from China's northeast had begun to encroach into the Ming's frontier and in 1644 they defeated Li Zicheng's undisciplined forces in Beijing. Following their victory in Beijing and founding the Qing dynasty, they began a slow conquest of the remaining Ming forces.
QING (1616-1911)
The Qing dynasty saw its heights of power under three exceptional emperors: Kangxi, Yongzhen and Qianlong. Under their rule, China saw huge advances in literature and military technology. Because the Qing rulers weren't ethnic Han Chinese, they imposed tight controls to maintain their rule. However, the Qing had to work closely with Han Chinese scholars and within the Confucian bureaucratic framework to rule their empire effectively. The Qing emperors expanded the frontiers of their empire and consolidated the borders of what would become modern China.
Nevertheless, beneath the aura of splendor began a rot that
would destroy the framework of the empire. Overpopulation and rampant corruption
created instability. Population and economic pressures forced many into poverty.
With no future, many close to revolt.
Foreign encroachment from Western powers arrived a time when the Qing dynasty was on the downward trend of the dynastic cycle. In the 19th century, Britain began exporting opium to china to reduce a trade imbalance that had arisen with British demand for tea, silk and porcelain. China's wealth was drained as the nation became addicted to opium. The Qing government's restrictions on the opium trade led to the first Opium War in 1840. The Qing was thus forced to face modernity.
MODERN CHINA (1840-1949)
Chinese modern history begins with the 1840 Opium War, which
was fought between China and Britain. Before the war, the Qing government
had already fought a series battles with Western nations, but it was the Qing
defeat during the Opium War that led to the debilitating "Unequal Treaties." Under
these treaties, Western nations were able to strip China of its resources,
take advantage of its people. In the late 19th century, when capitalism and
imperialism fed off each other, Western incursion into China increased. The
old Chinese tactic of playing one threat off another was no longer viable,
the treaties stipulated a "most favored nation" clause, in effect,
whatever concession given to one nation, would be given to all.
As they did in Africa, they imperial powers carved themselves
spheres of influence and concession areas there they held extra-territorial
powers. In effect, China lost its own sovereignty, for example, Western powers
had control to China's customs revenues and could set their own tariffs and
taxes for imports.
During this era, China lost control of Macau and Hong Kong,
and the Old Summer Palace (yuanmingyuan 
) was burned by Anglo-French force
in 1860.
Whilst foreign countries were encroaching into China, endemic government corruption made any efforts to oppose Western encroachment nearly impossible. After the Opium War, the more far-sighted scholars of the ruling class realized that China could strengthen itself by adapting Western science and technology as Japan had done.
Consequently, the scholars actively sought to reform the military and antiquated Confucian education system despite strong opposition from conservative Qing officials. With China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War of 1895, greater impetus was given to the reformist. In 1898 reformers led by Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and the near powerless Emperor Guangxu, proposed dramatic reforms to the Qing government by adopting western-styled political institutions that would have turned the Qing into a constitutional monarchy. Since ultimate power was held by empress Dowager Cixi, who was loath to relinquish any of it, the reform movement ended in failure after 100 days.
Popular uprisings some of which had egalitarian overtones
undermined Qing authority throughout China. Under the leadership of Hong
Xiuquan, a failed scholar, the Taiping Rebellion began in 1851. This movement
organized and mobilized peasants under a pseudo-Christian banner. 1899 saw
the boxers were originally an underground.
Organization based heavily on superstitious beliefs. It quickly developed into an anti-foreign movement with the aim of expelling Westerners from China.
Some reformers felt that drastic change was necessary to revitalize China. Mere reform of the imperial dynasty was no longer possible, that China required the overthrow. The next year, in 1912, the Republic of China was founded with its capital in Nanjing. The government was based on Sun's "Three Principles of People."
Three months after the founding of the Republic of China,
China fell into hands of northern warlords led by Yuan Shikai, a former Qing
general. Yuan had grandiose plans to crown himself emperor of his own imperial
dynasty, but facing universal condemnation, his effort to don the yellow robes
of the emperor failed.
Meanwhile, a social revolution was occurring alongside the
political revolution. A "New Culture Movement" was launched in1915.Advocates
hoped that democracy and scientific progress could transform China's old culture-they
believed that advanced technology from the West and the philosophies of the
West's Enlightenment could save China from backwardness.
During this period, writing in the Chinese vernacular became
fully developed –the stiff formal writing of classical Chinese was dropped.
Supporters of this new literature included Lu Xun, one of China's most influential
writers and social commentators whose works include The True Story of Ah Q(a
Q zhengzhuan 
).
In 1919, the May Fourth Movement, spawned by university students protesting China's weakness at the hands of exploitative warlords and Western imperialism, became one of the modern China's most pivotal moments. It was one of the earliest manifestations of Chinese nationalism. As people searched for the answer to China's woes, some turned to Marxism and in 1921, the Nationalists and Communist Party was established in Shanghai. In 1924, the Nationalists and Communists formally established a united front to combat the rule of the warlords.
In the spring of 1927, the Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai-shek, formally returned the seat of national power to Nanjing. This was a time of internal turmoil as the Nationalists and the Communists constantly fought pitched battles. Eventually the Nationalists surrounded the Communist base in the Jiangxi Soviet. In a daring breakout, Communists were forced to embark on a strategic retreat from 1934 to 1936, the epic Long March. The Communists marched 25,000 li ( a li is equal to a half kilometer) through swamps and mountains to Yan'an while all the way being pursued by the Nationalists.
In 1931, the Imperial Japanese Army launched a massive invasion of northeast China. In 1937, the Japanese began a general invasion of northeast China. In 1937, the Japanese began a general invasion and all-out war broke out. Faced with a Japanese onslaught, the Nationalists and Communists once again formed a united front against a common enemy. After Japan's defeat in the Second World War, civil war broke out between the Nationalists and Communists. In 1949, the Nationalists were defeated and retreated from the mainland to Taiwan.
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